Esperanto and Education:
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Unhappily, a gap often exists between research and practice since research findings do not always filter down to the classroom teacher. Despite what is known about the learner's internal syllabus, for example, most teaching continues to be based on an assumption that input should be carefully controlled and graded for structural complexity. If research were heeded, teachers (and textbook writers too) would provide input based on comprehensibility, interest and relevance to the learner, rather than on a linguistic sequence. Once formed, however, teacher views and habits are often impervious to new findings (despite in-service attempts) which augurs for well-designed (pre-service) teacher education programs. Most importantly, teachers must know how to engage in language instruction which aids learning rather than interferes or hinders it.
Within the field of language education there exist a great variety of teaching approaches, some more successful than others. Despite the premise that all learners can develop a L2, having already demonstrated competence in a first language, we also know that not all L2 learners enjoy equal success. Language pedagogy, then, must consider both the internal and external factors cited earlier. Internal factors have been examined in Section I dealing with learners and learning; this section, then, is concerned primarily with the external factors which the teacher controls and which, if properly attended, should maximize learner success. In other words, teachers who are informed about acquisition research and factors are better able to design and carry out a process to enhance success for their specific students. Learning and teaching are inextricably interrelated, and the learner and teacher are the actors.
Approach is the broadest category at the top of the hierarchy. An approach tends to be inclusive rather than exclusive because it acknowledges the widest range of assumptions about learning which are viewed as insights rather than conclusive proof. As a result, a teaching approach permits utilization of a broad range of techniques, despite their possible origins in a particular method, applied by an "informed" educator in an eclectic manner, as appropriate.
The educational process includes several components: the learner, the teacher, the learning process, the teaching process, and the instructional content (that is, the target language and culture). The choice of technique, method or approach, influences the selection of instructional tasks which are the behavioral manifestations of underlying principles (or assumptions) about the process (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). Together, these components form a theoretical framework for examining the various methods currently extant.
For centuries, Grammar-Translation has clearly been the most common language teaching method, especially for Latin and Greek. Until the middle part of the twentieth century, it was also commonly used to teach modern languages as well. Following is an analysis of the method in accordance with the questions listed above:
Like Grammar-Translation, the Direct Method is not new. However, it enjoyed a revival in the mid-1930s when the goals of instruction expanded to include learning language for communication. Since Grammar-Translation was not effective for this purpose, the Direct Method became popular, differing dramatically in its basic rule which prohibited translation. Meaning is associated "directly" with the TL, bypassing the learner's L1. Following is an analysis of this method:
This method spread in the United States during World War II as a result of the perceived need for people to learn foreign languages as rapidly as possible for military purposes. New ideas about language and learning deriving from descriptive linguistics and behavioral psychology were utilized in developing this method. Like the Direct Method, ALM focused on communication, creating new techniques to aid in developing oral competence. Following is an analysis of this method:
The Silent Way Although many people learned languages successfully through the Audio-Lingual Method (which spread from the military to the State Department, the Peace Corps, and public schools, and is still widely used today), developments in cognitive psychology and linguistics (from a transformational-generative view) challenged behaviorist views of language learning. They argued that mimicry and habit-formation were inadequate to explain most of language development. Instead, learners formulate rules which allow them to understand and create novel utterances. Learners need to use their own thinking processes, or cognition, and to "discover" the rules of the language they are acquiring. Language imperfections are signs of the learner's level of discovery, and errors are a natural part of the process. All four skills are important and complementary.
Although the Silent Way did not emerge directly from the above research, it shares many of the same principles. A basic tenet of this approach is that "teaching should be subordinated to learning," and it accords an active role to the learner. Following is an analysis of the Silent Way:
Recognizing that people utilize only five to ten percent of their mental capacity, this method seeks to maximize learning through more effective use of our mental reserves. To accomplish this, it tries to "de-suggest"; that is, by applying suggestion to pedagogy to help overcome barriers, resulting in "accelerated" learning. Following is an analysis of this method:
This method is based on a "whole person" concept of learning. Like Suggestopedia, this means that both student feelings and intellect are addressed, but in CLL it also means that the relationship between the student's physical reactions, his or her instinctive protective reactions, and his or her desire to learn are also considered. This method derives from a more general Counseling-Learning approach which believes that teachers need to become "counselors" to help students overcome learning fears. This does not imply, however, someone trained in psychology, but rather a skilled "understander" of the struggle learners face while trying to learn another language. Understanding is demonstrated by accepting the students, being sensitive to their fears, and helping them to turn negative feelings into positive energy to further learning. Following is an analysis of CLL:
Also known as the "comprehension" approach, TPR is distinctive in the importance it accords to listening comprehension as primary input for the learner's subsequent development and performance. This principle is based on how children acquire their mother tongue, spending many months listening, and speaking only when ready. Initial learner responses are given by pointing or gesturing. Following is an analysis of TPR:
While the Communicative Approach shares the goal of developing communicative skills, it adds another significant dimension. In addition to "language" rules, learners must also know "usage" rules, otherwise communication will be inadequate, inappropriate, possibly even offensive. All language functions, greeting, promising, persuading, and so on, are context sensitive. That is, how a speaker chooses to express himself is based not only on intent and level of emotion, but also on the role and relationship of the interlocutor, the setting, and various other factors (in short, those contextual variants which sociolinguistic research has identified for the language field). Students must not only have TL knowledge (forms, meanings and functions), they must also apply this knowledge to negotiate meaning.
Communication transpires through "interaction" between speaker and listener and is frequently revised and restated in the process. The Communicative Approach draws upon Notional-Functional Syllabi, the Natural Approach, and sociolinguistic research (not separately described in this report). Following is an analysis of the Communicative Approach:
To promote synthesis for contextualized teaching/learning, a "Process Approach" (PA) may be useful (Fantini, 1977). A PA is a framework which focuses attention on the process, or stages, of language teaching and learning. Clarifying learning and teaching objectives at each point aids the selection of the most appropriate technique, no matter the method from which it derives. In other words, the framework encourages informed eclecticism in a personalized teaching approach by promoting use of the best each method has to offer as appropriate to the instructional task at hand. Finally, the framework insures integration of language and culture insuring that "intercultural communicative competence" is the end goal (Fantini, 1991).
The seven stages of a Process Approach are:
The PA framework need not be implemented in a linear sequence. For example, one might start with an interactive cross-cultural experience (Stage 7) in which the communication act is subsequently examined and specific language is extracted for further work (Stages 1-4). Indeed the process is cyclical (with movable sequences) and may be applied to segments of the syllabus or segments of an individual lesson. For example, the teacher may choose to do grammar exploration before practice (inverting stages 3 and 2, and working deductively instead of inductively), and so forth. Clarifying the stage (or stages) being worked on, assists selection from among a greater variety of techniques and choice of the one most appropriate to the task.
Stage 4, Transposition, obviously stresses communicative functions, while 5, Sociolinguistic exploration, stresses usage and appropriateness. Stage 5 insures that language is viewed in its cultural context while Stages 6 and 7 guarantee that both experience with the TC and also reflection on contrasts between the TC and native culture form part of the learner's experience.
The availability of a wide range of methods and techniques and the increasing focus on intercultural communicative competence (ICC) has tremendous implications for teachers of Esperanto. Each new method adds new areas of concern and new ways of attending to them, increasing the effectiveness of the teaching/learning process, while the notion of ICC significantly broadens the end goal of language instruction. Unfortunately, no evidence of either is found in Esperanto literature, suggesting a void to be filled.
Curiously, although no references to any of the methods described in this Section were explicitly mentioned in the Esperanto literature, there were allusions to three other methods unknown within the more general language education field. For example, methods apparently used in Esperanto circles and included as part of a methods training course at the San Francisco State University Summer Esperanto Workshop, are the Zagreb Method, the Andreo Cseh method, and the Method Children Around the World/Project Talento. A review of the first two sets of materials and their prefatory comments, however, reveals that both the Zagreb and Cseh "methods" are in reality not much more than a set of instructions on how to implement these specific sets of teaching materials, rather than approaches to teaching based on a defensible set of assumptions. Of the two, the Cseh method is more explicit and provides a list of "do's" and "don'ts" based on the ideas of Andreo Cseh and written in 1929. Clearly this does not consider any of the important findings of the past half century (see Section IV.B for further comments on these materials). Unfortunately, more explicit information on the Method Children Around the World/Project Talento was not available for this report, however, one might infer from the descriptions that the Zagreb and Cseh "methods" are in reality a set of instructions on how to implement a specific set of teaching materials, rather than an independent approach to teaching with a well thought-out set of assumptions.
Yet, despite a wide range of methods and even more techniques (based on a given set of instructional materials or not), "informed" language teachers still need to develop a personal approach in response to the particulars of their own context. The result is that each teacher's approach will vary in implementation over time even where there is agreement on a philosophical level. The teacher is, in fact, a continual decision-maker. Some decisions may be minor (for example, decisions about homework, feedback, how to handle a problem student, and so on). Others have more profound implications (for example, course goals, which techniques are effective in reaching them, how best to evaluate attainment of objectives, and so on). In fact, making informed choices is what teaching is all about (Stevick, 1982). For this reason, effective language educators must understand the principles on which methods and techniques are based (distinguishing them from "trainers"); and they must continually examine their own beliefs and practices with regards to teaching and learning. This last idea has led to the contemporary notion of "action research" which a teacher conducts in her own classroom as a way of insuring the efficacy of her approach, and is also closely tied to the recent research in teacher education on the development of teachers as "reflective practitioners."
Claims, Questions and Concerns
Several claims, questions and concerns have been raised with respect to the specific case of Esperanto. Those relevant to pedagogy are examined below and discussed in light of current views about language education.
(1) With Regard to the "Best Methods"
Claim: The relative effectiveness of teaching by explicit instruction of rules compared with inductive methods is greater for Esperanto than for any national/ethnic language (Pool, 1992: 1).
Question: Given the claim that Esperanto is best taught codewise rather than inductively, should different languages be taught by similar methods, or are particular methods more suitable for a given language. Which is the best method, and which is the best method specifically for Esperanto? (Pool, 1992: 2-3).
Discussion: This claim seems to be quite logical, based simply on general linguistic principles alone without requiring further experimentation. That is, the more regular and simpler a rule, the easier it is to generalize about it. Clearly such is the case for Esperanto which contrasts sharply with national/ethnic languages (possibly excluding pidgins which typically tend toward simplification and reduction). However, we must recognize the difference between knowing a rule (competence) and utilizing it (performance). Once this distinction is clear, the question is: whether teaching a rule a priori (albeit simpler and easier) necessarily converts into use.
A second aspect of this claim relates to the difference between teaching and learning. In other words, once it is acknowledged that teaching the rules of Esperanto is a simple task, a related question is whether or not this is the way Esperanto is best learned by a particular learner (or group of learners). The focus must also be on learnability, not just teachability. This means concentrating on what is known about learners and learner variables (for example, motivation, internal syllabus, attributes, and so on), more than the language to be learned. When the question is posed in this way, the pedagogical response is determined by the well-informed and skilled teacher. The effective teacher understands content, process and her learners and makes different choices depending on each context.
From these comments, we may also find a response to the second question about "best methods." Accordingly, there is no best method, although certain methods and techniques may prove more appropriate and more effective in accordance with a specific instructional task. The effective teacher knows how to draw on these as needed to promote rather than interfere with learning.
(2) With Regard to the Types of Experiments
Question and Concern: How to test the relative learnability of Esperanto and national/ethnic languages given that Esperanto materials and methods themselves may be inferior, thus contaminating the results (Pool, 1992: 3)?
Question: What other types of experiments are needed? Should they be sequenced beginning first with one comparing alternative methods of teaching Esperanto (Pool, 1992: 3)?
Discussion: Substantiating the relative learnability of Esperanto as compared to national/ethnic languages can be tested in various ways, involving more or less elaborate experiments. For example, comparable situations can be set up over varying lengths of time (3 hours, 3 days, 3 weeks, and so forth), and the results evaluated against a set of objectives and measurable criteria. However, relative learnability can also be established by establishing a proficiency scale with levels and attendant criteria and tracking the amount of time individuals take on the average to attain each level. The results can be compared with already existing data for many national/ethnic languages, available from the Foreign Service Institute. Aside from setting up a proficiency system, however, qualified evaluators would be required.
It is true that it is difficult to insure "comparable conditions." This includes considerations of the teaching content and process; that is, the methods and materials used for teaching Esperanto compared with those for teaching the control language(s). Cases are known where results have been inaccurate and prejudicial to the claim being examined because of faulty design and incomparable conditions. On the other hand, it is also recognized that an effective teacher can overcome even poor materials, whereas an ineffective teacher may not produce good results even with the best of materials. Care must be take not to invalidate results if comparable quality Esperanto courses do not exist.
Finally, global attempts (that is, broadly construed research designs) to substantiate assumptions about the superiority of one method over another have generally failed. It seems more possible to isolate discrete aspects of teaching/learning rather than take on a widely encompassing experiment.
(3) With Regard to Experimental Designs
Concern: Valid experiments on language teaching are difficult to design and implement well. Variability among learning-teaching situations renders the results of any experiment only partially applicable to the precise conditions in which any other particular learners are working (Pool, 1992: 2).
Concern: Good experimental design requires random assignment of persons to conditions. However, this deprives learners of freedom to choose, and it takes more time to find a site where such an experiment can be conducted than to find a site for an improperly controlled experiment (Pool, 1992: 2).
Discussion: A case in point is the Pennsylvania Project mentioned earlier in this report and often cited as one of the most ambitious projects attempting to substantiate what everyone already assumed. Conducted in the 1960s, it involved more than $300,000, some 30 schools and 300 teachers. Although the researchers attempted to identify teachers of each of the two methods under examination, it was learned in retrospect that teachers crossed methodological lines when researchers were not around. In other words, teachers tended to be more eclectic than supposed, mixing and matching techniques rather than adhering strictly to any single method, thereby invalidating the entire effort. Whether random assignments are made or not, this may well be the case for most people. It is difficult to hold learners and teachers to a single way of behaving.
Since that time, no other known attempt has been made to conduct a similar type of comprehensive experiment especially to prove relative merits of methodologies. Moreover, interest shifted from trying to prove which is the best method to trying to clarifying teaching goals and the strategies best suited for accomplishing them. And since goals vary with context, so too do the ways for best achieving them.
(4) With Regard to Research and Researchers
Question: Can reliable knowledge already generated about language teaching in general, and derived from other experiments, be utilized rather than duplicating experiments to obtain similar knowledge (Pool, 1992: 4)?
Question: Will experiments conducted by Esperantists only prove what they already believe?. Should other researchers be involved using funding sources outside of Esperanto circles (Pool, 1992: 3)?
Discussion: This preliminary report may provide a first step in the direction of bringing existing knowledge of the field to Esperanto education. Clearly, most of the information derived from research on other languages and language learners also applies to Esperanto and Esperantists. The issue is how to impart this information so it can be best utilized.
It is also well recognized in research that those with a particular bias often end up substantiating through their investigations what they have set out to prove a priori . Unbiased researchers can help substantiate claims for Esperanto in wider professional circles. Their work, conducted in conjunction with qualified Esperantists, would seem to be the best approach.
Preparation of effective language educators is a broad topic, encompassing several interrelated areas. Surprisingly, however, many teacher education programs, including those in language, fall short of an adequate design for pre-service preparation in all areas appropriate to the work of a classroom teacher. In-service workshops, conversely, often offer only piecemeal solutions and generally fall short in bringing teachers to a desired level of teacher proficiency (Focus, 1992).
Yet effective teachers are the most important aspect of any educational program. The effective teacher can help overcome obstacles to the learning process, including poor materials, inadequate equipment, negative self-image of the learner, and so on, while creating optimal conditions for learning. Nonetheless, many untrained and/or ineffective teachers are also in classrooms. For this reason, administrators often attempt to control or influence the learning process indirectly. Whereas ascertaining in advance course goals, instructional sequences, materials, methods, evaluative procedures, and so on, may support some teachers, such decisions often produce negative responses among creative and confident teachers. If the teacher is the key, teacher development becomes a central issue of language education.
Teacher Competency Areas
To be effective, teachers should be proficient in a great number of areas. For convenience, however, these may be grouped into six competency areas as a way of capturing the vast array of knowledge, attitudes, skills and awareness (KASA) which a foreign language teacher must develop. These are:
In the second competency area, the teacher must be familiar with cultural dimensions present in the language teaching process, address sociolinguistic and cultural concerns as appropriate, and relate the culture of the TL to the culture(s) of the learners. In fact, all language teaching involves not only teaching culture, but it initiates an intercultural process where learners come face to face with an alternative language, culture and worldview. That experience provides an opportunity to compare and contrast their L/C1 with the TL/C2 ("looking out is looking in"), and to explore cultural entry options, make choices, and acknowledge consequences.
The area of language/linguistics is easiest to understand; teachers must possess an acceptable level of competence in their subject matter, in this case, the TL. What is less obvious, however, is how a knowledge of linguistics, including contrastive linguistics, can inform the teaching/learning process.
Related to the subject matter, or "content," are "process" issues. These include the interrelated processes of learning and teaching. With regards to the first, the teacher must know about language acquisition and learning (see Section I), and individual variants (that is, learner styles and strategies at varying ages) to be effective. Aspects of pedagogy/andragogy (such as conducting a needs assessment, course and syllabus design, lesson planning, implementation of teaching activities, identification and utilization of materials and resources, and assessment and feedback, are affected by theoretical notions. Put another way, "educators" differ from "trainers" in that the former have a deep understanding of the theoretical and conceptual underpinnings which allows them to be artful as well as skillful. The sixth area of competence is professionalism. Like the others, this involves knowledge, attitude, skills and awareness which aid the teacher in a continual process of self-development, while seeking to contribute to the development of one's colleagues, and by contributing to the field in general. Recognition that one needs to share and contribute to a larger community of scholars, interact with professional societies, and develop an attitude of service, are all part of being a "professional" teacher as opposed to a "volunteer."
Further detail about each of the competency areas are detailed in the "YOGA Form (Your Objectives, Guidelines and Assessment): A Monitoring Aid for Teacher Development" (Fantini, 1986). In the interests of teacher development, it is important that the educator identify clear objectives, evaluate oneself periodically, and assess one's level of development while elaborating plans for further development. (See Appendix III.F.)
Depending on one's view of the subject matter, the teaching task may be narrowly or broadly construed. For example, a narrow view might portray the task as one of "language as a linguistic" system, as expressed in a Grammar-Translation Approach. At the other end of the spectrum, however, language is viewed as "communicative competence," as reflected in a Communicative Teaching Approach. Even in the latter view, however, teachers often fall short of grasping the language-culture paradigm in which language is understood as a reflection and influencer of culture and worldview. For this reason, a PA framework insures inclusion of these areas as part of every course experience by explicitly including Stages 5-7.
Depending on course objectives, however, the degree and ways in which culture is addressed will vary. In other words, the teacher can minimize or maximize the role of culture in any language course, as appropriate. However, even when culture is minimized as much as possible, one cannot elude the fact that linguistic systems themselves are also a cultural paradigm embodying a specific view of the world. Since words (and their attendant perceptual/cognitive categories) and systems are a construct and a choice (language determinism) among other possible options (language relativism), no language -- not even constructed ones -- are ever totally free of an inherent "cultural" bias.
Aside from this fundamental notion, teaching a second/foreign language also always initiates an intercultural process which cannot be avoided. The learner of a particular L/C1 enters into a second cultural experience while undertaking L2 development, especially in situations where culture is maximized. Language study is ipso facto an intercultural process. And in situations where learners represent different L/C2s, a multicultural process ensues. The teacher, competent in intercultural education (of which language forms a part), will be able to guide learners effectively through that process. She will help learners to compare and contrast their C1 with the C2, to clarify intercultural entry options and choices (both internal and external), to understand phases and stages of intercultural development, to distinguish between "etic" (outsider views of the C2) and "emic" (insider views of their own culture), to understand the phases and stages typical of intercultural development, to develop strategies for further development, and to clarify consequences of specific choices. Unfortunately, few language teachers are adequately prepared in these areas.
Language teaching also requires ability in several specific skills, from needs assessment to evaluation, completing the loop in the teaching/learning process. These skills include:
This is not usually the case, however, for language teachers in private schools, nor for those in colleges and universities, although degrees and/or other job requirements serve in some way to ascertain competence. Often where a need exists and there is a lack of professionally qualified instructors, volunteers with or without minimum qualifications, are engaged. Yet, if the quality of instruction and of the learning experience hinge directly on the teacher, her individual competence is more critical than all other factors (for example, the availability of a lab or other resources, the reputation of the institution, and so on). For these reasons, there has been a move to improve the quality of teacher education programs, to develop minimum standards, and to improve assessments of teacher proficiency. Concurrently there is an increase in in-service workshops for language teachers offered by professional societies such as the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) and others.
Concern about the quality of Esperanto teachers is shared within Esperanto circles as well and attempts have been made to address this issue. One professional support system is the American Association of Teachers of Esperanto (AATE), 12 Stage Road, Westhampton, MA 01027, affiliated with the International League of Esperanto Teachers (ILEI). The AATE provides its members with a quarterly "Bulletin" in English and Esperanto. Members also receive the Internacia Pedagogia Revuo three times a year, which informs them about Esperanto teaching throughout the world. Together with ELNA, the AATE also makes available the U.S. Esperanto Test Service to validate the attainment of learners at the elementary (komecgrada), intermediate (duagrada), and advanced (supera) levels. These "secure" tests, provided by mail, require responses on cassette for later evaluation.
Another example is the Esperanto Society of Sacramento, California (Letter,
May 1988), which initiated a project to develop an Esperanto Handbook for
Teachers, in conjunction with the California Esperanto Education Commission,
containing three major segments:
I. General Information about Esperanto
II. Teaching Suggestions (for example, introduction to structure,
games, songs)
III. Evaluation & Resources.
Given the complexity of the task, however, much more will be needed to increase teacher effectiveness.
Various preparation courses for teachers of Esperanto are also provided on occasion such as the annual summer courses for teachers at San Francisco State University, occasional teacher training institutes in New York City (Sherwood, 1983: 9), and the "Konsiloj por la instruisto de Esperanto" or Seminar for Esperanto Teachers, offered by Duncan Charters at the University of Portland, Portland, Oregon. Official "komencgrada " and "mezgrada" examinations exist, as well as an advanced examination with a certificate offered by the AATE. These are important mechanisms which need to be reviewed, extended, and strengthened. Likewise, AATE's affiliation with the Modern Language Association (MLA) is important, although connections with the American Association of Teachers of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) might prove even more valuable in terms of building connections for improved teacher education since the MLA tends to be more literary oriented than pedagogically.
Whereas concerns are voiced about the quality of Esperanto materials or claims are made about the nature of the subject matter, it might be profitable to direct more attention to the key element in the educational process -- the teacher. To help strengthen the focus, one might define specific attributes of teacher candidates, develop teacher manuals, and provide teacher pre- and/or in-service workshops, in addition to improving instructional materials. These efforts would all seem appropriate toward strengthening the teaching of Esperanto. The downside, however, is that if teachers of Esperanto are only occasionally employed, the investment is great for only occasional returns; also, if there is also a large turnover of teachers, the effects of serious preparation would eventually dissipate.
Bachman, L. 1991. What does language testing have to offer? TESOL Quarterly 25, 4: 671-704.
Chastain, K. 1971. The Development of Modern Language Skills: Theory to Practice. Philadelphia, PA: Center for Curriculum Development.
Fantini, Alvino E. 1992. Focus. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Fantini, Alvino E. 1991. The promise of intercultural competence. Adult Learning 2, 5: 15-19.
Fantini, Alvino E. 1986. The YOGA form: A monitoring aid for teacher development. (In preparation)
Fantini, Alvino E. 1983. Approaches, methods and techniques. English Teaching Newsletter 7, 2: 17-21.
Fantini, Alvino E. 1977. Focus on process: An examination of the learning and teaching of communicative competence. In Beyond Experience (Brattleboro, VT: The Experiment Press), pp. 47-54.
Grittner, F. 1977. Teaching Foreign Languages. New York: Harper & Row. Kelly, L. G. 1969. 25 Centuries of Language Teaching. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Krahnke, K. 1987. Approaches to Syllabus Design for Foreign Language Teaching. (Language in Education Series) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lafayette, R., ed. 1976. The Culture Revolution in Foreign Language Teaching. Skokie, IL: National Textbook Company.
Larsen-Freeman, Diane. 1986. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. New York: Oxford University Press.
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Smith, P. D. 1970. A Comparison of the Cognitive and Audiolingual Approaches to Foreign Language Instruction. Philadelphia, PA: The Center for Curriculum Development.
Stevick, E. W. 1980. Teaching Languages: A Way and Ways. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Tyler, R. 1949. Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Uber Grosse, C. 1991. The TESOL methods course. TESOL Quarterly 25, 1: 29-49.
In preparing the evaluations of the materials reviewed below, we used the following general categories, guidelines and questions:
Anon. 1987. Baza Cseh-Kurso. The Hauge: Internacia Esperanto-Instituto.
Anon. 1971. Esperanto lau metodo Friis. Aabyhøy, Denmark: Dansk Esperanto Forlag.
Auld, William. 1972. A First Course in Esperanto. (With six audiotapes). Greenfield, MA: Channing L. Bete Co.
Butler, Montagu C. 1965. Step by Step in Esperanto, 8th ed. London: Esperanto Publishing Co.
Childs-Mee, Audrey. 1989. Saluton! Esperanto Autodidakte: Internacia Lernlibro de la Internacia Lingvo, 5th ed. (With audiocassette). Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio.
Cresswell, J., and Hartley, J. 1992. Teach Yourself Esperanto, revised by J. H. Sullivan. Chicago, IL: NTC Publishing Group. Also available as: Cresswell, J., and Hartley, J. 1987. Teach Yourself Esperanto, revised by J. H. Sullivan. (With audiocassette). Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder and Stoughton.
Fantini, Alvino, and Lewine, J. 1973. EIL Esperanto: A Home Study Course. (With correlated tapes). Brattleboro, VT: The Experiment Press.
Fox, P. 1974. How to Understand and Speak Esperanto. (With a workbook and six audiotapes). Chicago, IL: Teach'em.
Imbert, Roger; Sekelj, Tibor; Sxpoljarec, Ivica; Sxtimex, Spomenka; and Tisxljar, Zlatko. 1986. Esperanto: Textbook of the International Language, 1st English ed. (With audiocassette). Zagreb: Internacia Kultura Servo.
Jordan, David K. 1992. Being Colloquial in Esperanto. Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
Richardson, David. 1988. Esperanto: Learning and Using the International Language. Eastsound, WA: Esperanto League for North America, in cooperation with Orcas Publishing.
Szerdaheli, I. 1968. Esperanto 2: Eszperantó Nyelvkönyv, 10-14 éves korúak számára, infanoj. Budapest: Tankonyvkiado.
Wells, J. C. 1984. Jen Nia Mondo, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (With audiocassettes). London: Esperanto-Centro.
The completed evaluation forms for each of these sets of instructional materials can be found in the published paper version of this work.
Components
The following components, taken together, would form a well-integrated and complete course of instruction for maximum benefit of students of Esperanto:
Syllabus Design
Ideally, an introductory Esperanto course would address all four skills areas (listening, speaking, reading and writing), as well as the language and culture/intercultural processes. The design would consider "generic" aspects of curriculum design while also seeking to integrate several approaches to syllabus development, such as a notional-functional aspect, situational and/or topic aspect, linguistic aspect, as well as competency and proficiency-based aspects.
Audio and audiovisual components will enhance the entire course, which may be provided in a "guided" self-study format with sufficient clarity so that it may also be used without a tutor. A computer-assisted approach (perhaps utilizing interactive video technology) would allow for maximum participation by an independent learner.
The course would be graded by levels in accordance with a previously devised proficiency scale.
Other Considerations
Other considerations which need to be taken into account in devising new course materials are:
The following list provides a selected listing of Esperanto instructional materials. The list is by no means intended to be exclusive, nor are all of the materials listed easily obtainable. Further, in some cases the references are not complete. To our knowledge, however, it is the most complete listing of such materials currently available.
Anon. 1987. Baza Cseh-Kurso, 7th ed. Netherlands.
Anon. 1981. Junul-Kurso, 5th ed.(With audiocassette). Paris: S.A.T.-Amikaro.
Anon. 1971. Esperanto lau metodo Friis. Aabyhøy, Denmark: Dansk Esperanto Forlag.
Anon. 1970. Esperanto: Junul-Kurso, 4a eldono. Paris: S.A.T. Amerikaro.
Anon. 1967. Kemio Internacia. Montevideo, Uruguay: Urugvaja Esperanto Societo.
Anon. N.D. Esperanto: Lau Natura Metodo. (10 Volume Set). Aabyhøy, Denmark: Dansk Esperanto Farlag.
Auld, William. 1972. A First Course in Esperanto. (With six audiotapes). Greenfield, MA: Channing L. Bete Co.
Auld, William. N.D. A Ten-hour Introductory Course in Esperanto/Dekora Rapidkurso Pri Esperanto. Unpublished mimeo.
Auld, William. 1974. Pasxoj al Plena Posedo. Bruxelles: Heroldo de Esperanto.
Banham, F. R. 1979. A Translation Course in Esperanto for Advanced Students. Clontarf Beach, Queensland, Australia: Hilda Banham.
Baronnet, Félicien. 1990. Linvaj Anguloj. France.
Batt, A. G. 1946. School Esperanto Course. Rickmansworth: Esperanto Publishing Co.
Behrmann, H. N.D. Esperanto: Programita 1-3. Löhne.
Benson, W. S. 1925-32. Practical Esperanto. Newark, NJ: Benson School of Esperanto.
Butler, Montagu C. 1965. Step by Step in Esperanto, 8th ed. London: Esperanto Publishing Co.
Charters, D. 1969. Modern Esperanto. Pre-publication pilot version.
Childs-Mee, Audrey. 1989. Saluton! Esperanto Autodidakte: Internacia Lernlibro de la Internacia Lingvo, 5th ed. (With audiocassette). Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio.
Clemente, Felix Navarro. 1987. Curso Practico elemental de Esperanto. Valencia: Grupo Esperanto de Vallencia.
Connor, G.; Connor, D.; Solzbacher, W.; and Se-Tsien Kao, J. 1966. Esperanto: The World Interlanguage. South Brunswick, NJ: Thomas Yoseloff.
Cresswell, J., and Hartley, J. 1992. Teach Yourself Esperanto, revised by J. H. Sullivan. Chicago, IL: NTC Publishing Group. Also available as: Cresswell, J., and Hartley, J. 1987. Teach Yourself Esperanto, revised by J. H. Sullivan. (With audiocassette). Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder and Stoughton.
Cresswell, J. and Hartley, J. 1968. Teach Yourself Esperanto. London: English Universities Press.
Degen, Arthur. 1930. Esperanto-Lernolibro por Popollernejoj. Germany.
Fantini, Alvino E., and Lewine, J. 1972. Basic Esperanto: A Home Study Course. (With correlated tapes or records). Brattleboro, VT: Esperantic Studies Foundation.
Fantini, Alvino E., and Lewine, J. 1973. EIL Esperanto: A Home Study Course. (With correlated tapes). Brattleboro, VT: The Experiment Press.
Fjodorov, Aleksandr. 1985. Didaktikaj Lingvaj Ludoj. Bulgaria.
Fox, P. 1974. How to Understand and Speak Esperanto. (With a workbook and six audiotapes). Chicago, IL: Teach'em.
Golden, Bernard. 1982. Margxene de la Lernlibro. Hungary.
Goodman, T. H. 1969. Esperanto: Initial Foreign Language Learning Experience. Unpublished mimeo.
Grosjean-Maupin, E. 1934. Plena Vortaro Esperanto. Paris: Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda.
Imbert, Roger; Sekelj, Tibor; Sxpoljarec, Ivica; Sxtimex, Spomenka; and Tisxljar, Zlatko. 1986. Esperanto: Textbook of the International Language, 1st English ed. (With audiocassette). Zagreb: Internacia Kultura Servo.
Kohrs, Charolotte. 1984. Ni Parolu Esperanton Kune: Dek ses Komencgradaj Dialogoj, Esperante kaj Angle, en Konversacia Parolo. San Diego, CA: La Tigro - Libroj en Esperanto.
Loy, K. J. 1921. Spielend Esperanto! Habloch-Rheinpfalz: Verlag von Emil Friedrich Adolph.
MacGill, Stefan. 1992. Tendaraj Tagoj, 2 vols. Budapest: Internacia Ligo de Esperantistaj Instruistoj, Universala Esperanto-Asocio.
Markarian, R. H. M. 1964. Ni Parolu Esperantono: A First Book of Oral Esperanto. London: University Tutorial Press.
Markarian, R. H. M., and Sullivan, J. H. 1968-1971. Secondary School Esperanto, 2 vols. (With audiocassette for volume 1). London: University Tutorial Press.
Mattos, Geraldo. 1987. Aktuala Metodo de Esperanto. Brazil.
Mikulás, Helen, and Mikulás, Josefo. 1989. Esperanto por Ni, 4 vols. Hungary.
Mullarney, Máire. 1989. Esperanto for Hope. Ireland.
Nisbet, Stanley. 1990. Paroligiloj. Scotland.
Pechan, Alfonso, ed. 1979. Gvidlibro por Supera Ekzameno. Hungary.
Pettyn, Andrzej. 1990. Esperanto en Dialogoj. Poland.
Pettyn, Andrzej. 1988. Esperanto en Funkcioj. Poland.
Pettyn, Andrzej. 1969. Cxu Vi Parolas Esperante? Warsaw: Wiedza Powszechna.
Privat, Edmond. 1980. Esprimo de Sentoj en Esperanto, 4th ed. Netherlands.
Richardson, David. 1988. Esperanto: Learning and Using the International Language. Eastsound, WA: Esperanto League for North America, in cooperation with Orcas Publishing.
Seppik, Henrik. 1987. La Tuta Esperanto, 4th ed. Hungary.
Setälä, Vilho. 1981. Privilegia Vojo, 5th ed. Finland.
Sxtimec, Spomenka. 1990. Esperanto Ne Estas Nur Lingvo, 2nd ed. Yugoslavia.
Stuttard, Mason. 1989. The Esperanto Teacher: A Textbook of the International Language With Special Emphasis on the Needs of the Non-Grammarian and the Home-Student, 6th ed. Matraville, NSW, Australia: Libroservo de AEA.
Soloman, G. Gladstone. 1975. Esperanto Por Infanoj, 6th ed. Orelia, WA, Australia: Esperanto Publishing Co.
Szerdaheli, I. 1972. Esperanto 1: Internacia lernolibro por la lerneja junularo. Budapest: Tankonyukiado.
Szerdaheli, I. 1968. Esperanto 2: Eszperantó Nyelvkönyv, 10-14 éves korúak számára, infanoj. Budapest: Tankonyvkiado.
Szilágyi, Ferenc. 1977. A Practical Course in Esperanto With Reading Exercises and Illustrations, 12th ed. (Adopted for use in English-speaking countries by Fred Wadham). Orelia, WA, Australia: Esperanto Publishing Co.
Uhlmann, F. 1913. Deutsch-Esperanto Worterbuch fur das Rote Kreuz. Germany: Suddeutscher Esperanto-Verlag Schussenried.
Wells, J. C. 1984. Jen Nia Mondo, 2 vols., 2nd ed. (With audiocassettes). London: Esperanto-Centro.
Donna Kerr has argued that "policy" must be distinguished from other, related kinds of terms and activities such as "plans," "programs," "goals," "principles of action," and so on if we are to use the term in a meaningful and useful manner. Toward this end, she proposes four conditions which she maintains are those necessary for "policy" to be at issue. Specifically, these four policy conditions are:
Educational policies can and do address a number of different areas: there are policies which deal with the matter of education (that is, curricular policies), policies which deal with the manner of education (that is, methodological policies), and policies which deal with resources (both with how resources can be obtained and how they should be distributed) (see Fitzgibbons, 1981). Most educational policies, in actuality, contain elements of all three of these areas, though they will focus on policy issues related to one of the three areas. Where one is seeking to encourage the teaching of Esperanto, for the most part one is concerned with the matter of education, that is, with curricular policies, but issues of resources also play an important role, as can issues of teaching methodology. Further, the goals and objectives of the policy can be of two types: explicit and implicit. Explicit goals and objectives are those which are openly and publicly stated and discussed; implicit goals and objectives may (or may not) be generally understood, but they are not a formal part of a policy. For example, a school district may adopt a policy which deals explicitly with the need to increase the percentage of students of color through the development of magnet schools which would attract such students from other, nearby towns and cities. A possible implicit goal for such a policy might be an attempt to avoid court-ordered desegregation that would be involuntary in nature. Finally, policy goals can be distinguished in terms of the degree to which they are repeatable. That is, we can speak of policy goals which are achievable only once, those which are achievable repeatedly, and those which are not achievable (but which may still provide desirable and worthwhile goals for a school). Thus, an example of a once-achievable policy might be one devoted to the construction of a new media center for a school, while establishing objectives for high school graduation rates would be a repeatedly-achievable policy, and the elimination of racism and sexism among students altogether might be a non-achievable policy. In the last instance, we are not suggesting that the goal is not worthwhile; quite the contrary. Rather, it is a goal which, given what we know about contemporary American society, simply could not be achieved solely in the context of a school. To work toward such a goal is highly praiseworthy; to judge the policy a failure if racism is only reduced rather than eliminated would be unreasonable. A central feature of a workable policy will be that the goals and objectives for the policy are laid out as clearly and specifically as the social and political context allows.
An important element of any educational policy is the determination not merely of the goals and objectives for the policy, but also of how these goals and objectives are to be achieved. In other words, we must be concerned with the way in which the policy is to be implemented. Although statements of policy are often somewhat vague and unclear, the more detail that can be provided about implementation, the better. The risk involved in not providing details about implementation is that no implementation will in fact take place; there are innumerable educational policies currently "on the books" for which no serious effort has ever been made for implementation. While having a school or a school district go on record as supporting the teaching of Esperanto as part of the regular school curriculum would be very desirable, it is not at all evident or certain that such a policy would actually result in the teaching of Esperanto in the school.
Last, we come to the issue of how educational (and other social) policies can be evaluated (see Green, 1983; Greenstone & Peterson, 1983). A good policy should, on Kerr's (1976) account, be able to pass four broad "tests." It should be a desirable policy (that is, its ends should be educationally and/or socially desirable and worthwhile) (see Kerr, 1976: 133-139). The policy should be an effective one, which is to say that it should accomplish its ends to a reasonable degree (see Kerr, 1976: 140-147). A good policy should be just, which suggests that it ought to treat different individuals and groups in comparable (although not necessarily identical) manners (see Kerr, 1976: 147-155). Finally, to count as a good policy, a specific social or educational policy would have to be tolerable, in the sense that it is resource-sensitive and appropriate (Kerr, 1976: 156-161). In formulating policy proposals, these four "tests" should be kept in mind, since an inability to address any of the four could result in the policy proposal's rejection.
It is important to note that our discussion to this point has presented educational policy, policy development and policy implementation as a largely rational activity. Such a presentation is very useful heuristically, but it does not, of course, actually represent the reality of much policy-making. Policies are often generated, developed and implemented in the midst of controversy and debate, and their final form reflects the maelstrom from which they emerge. Any effort to encourage the teaching of Esperanto in the context of American schools must take this fact into account. All policies, and educational and language policies in particular, are highly political endeavors, and are often at least as much the products of back room discussions and personal contacts as of rational argument and compelling evidence.
Thus far, we have focused on educational policy in general terms. At this point, we can turn to the more specific issue of educational policy as it relates to the case of the teaching of Esperanto in the American context.
There is no doubt that such "grass roots" efforts are taking place in many parts of the country; during the course of the preparation of this report, for instance, we were told of such efforts in California, Hawaii, Illinois, Oregon, Washington, and several other parts of the country. Further, AATE tries, thus far somewhat unsuccessfully, to keep track of such efforts. These "grass roots" efforts are valuable and worthwhile activities, but they do not provide a solid base for policy development. In addition, it is important to recognize that there are some major risks involved in such programs. First of all, the quality of instruction is likely to vary dramatically, reflecting in part the huge variation in linguistic competence found among teachers seeking to teach their students Esperanto. Some of these teachers are highly fluent, skilled users of Esperanto, while others are very much beginners themselves. Second, while fluency in Esperanto is obviously an important quality to be desired in teachers of Esperanto, competence in a language does not automatically confer competence in the teaching of the language, and the preparation of teachers of Esperanto in the United States is basically haphazard at best. Finally, while the individuals involved in these "grass roots" efforts should be recognized and commended, the fact that Esperanto is generally only available as a consequence of such voluntary "donations" of time, energy and materials, means that there is a strong likelihood that it will continue to be seen by school authorities as beyond the pale of normal school activities, more comparable to visits by local fire fighters than to foreign language instruction. It is important to stress here, however, that these comments are essentially speculative, since we really do not know anything in a reliable fashion about such "grass roots" efforts to provide Esperanto instruction in the K-12 setting.
An interesting exception to the general tendency of Esperanto instruction to take place in this "grass roots" manner was the Hawaii English Program, which was a state-sponsored communication program which included several units devoted to Esperanto. As Wood described the program,
In order to succeed in having schools adopt Esperanto as a legitimate part of the school curriculum, a number of interrelated factors must be taken into account. Specifically, efforts must be made to offer a reasonably compelling case for the teaching of Esperanto. Such a case could focus on any of a number of benefits, but should be made in a manner that does not suggest that merely teaching Esperanto will solve other significant problems, nor should claims be made about the learnability of Esperanto (especially specific comparisons about the time needed to learn Esperanto versus that needed to acquire a national/ethnic language), unless further research is done. The case to be made must tie the existing research base to current school and social needs in a believable fashion, and must identify specific social desires for the schools that can be met most effectively and efficiently by the teaching of Esperanto. Further, it is important that those advocating the teaching of Esperanto distinguish between the educational benefits of such instruction, in which policy makers and educationists ought to be interested, and the longer-term social and political benefits that play an important role in the Esperanto movement, which can, in the American context, sometimes pose problems in making an educational case for teaching the language. In short, although this is to some extent paradoxical, it may be necessary, at least initially, to distance Esperanto as a language from the Esperanto movement for it to gain the credibility necessary in order to be adopted as a formal part of the school curriculum. This is not to suggest, however, that the social and cultural aspects of Esperanto and the Esperanto movement should not be included in any language training program; clearly they should be (see Auld, 1988: 61-78; Janton, 1988: 82-109; Moya, 1989). Finally, it is essential that any policy proposal for the teaching of Esperanto adequately address the four "tests" proposed for educational policies by Kerr and discussed above.
In order to be able to present the sort of case for Esperanto suggested here, a number of activities will need to take place concomitantly. Although details of the kinds of activities that can and should be undertaken will be explored in further detail in Section VI of this report, some of the general areas of need can be raised at this point:
In the final Section of this report, specific recommendations will be offered for ways in which limited resources can be effectively utilized to maximize the extent to which Esperanto is adopted as a formal part of the school curriculum.
Aronson, Howard I. 1991. The role of Esperanto in the study of English and foreign languages in elementary school. Presented to the Local School Council, Louisa May Alcott School, Chicago, Illinois, 18 June.
Auld, William. 1988. La Fenomeno Esperanto. Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio.
Bauer, Norman. 1987. American education and global interdependence: On the need for a transcendent language. Presented at the annual meeting of the Society of Educators and Scholars, Eastern Illinois University, Charleston, Illinois, 2-3 October.
Charters, Duncan. N.D. Teaching Culture: The Global Context. Unpublished pamphlet.
Church, John. 1992. Intrigo, losilo por estigi apogon pri Esperanto-instruado en Usonaj lernejoj. (mimeo.).
Cobarrubias, J., and Fishman, J., eds. 1983. Progress in Language Planning: International Perspectives. Berlin: Mouton.
Cooper, R. 1989. Language Planning and Social Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Eastman, C. 1983. Language Planning: An Introduction. San Francisco: Chandler & Sharp.
Edwards, Jane. 1986. Esperanto and an international research context. In Humphrey Tonkin and Karen Johnson-Weiner, eds., The Idea of a Universal Language: Report of the Fourth Annual Conference of the Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems (New York: CRDWLP), pp. 97-107.
Edwards, John, and MacPherson, Lynn. 1987. Views of constructed languages, with special reference to Esperanto: An experimental study. Language Problems and Language Planning 11, 3: 283-304.
Esperanto Handbook for Teachers: Guide to the International Language. 1988. El Cerrito, CA: Esperanto League for North American and the California Esperanto Education Commission.
Fitzgibbons, R. 1981. Making Educational Decisions: An Introduction to Philosophy of Education. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Forster, Peter G. 1987. Some social sources of resistance to Esperanto. In Serta Gratvlatoria in Honorem Juan Régulo, II (Esperantismo) (La Laguna: University de La Laguna), pp. 203-211.
Forster, Peter G. 1982. The Esperanto Movement. The Hague: Mouton.
Glossop, Ronald. 1991. How to integrate language study and global education. Presented at the tenth annual Conference on Language and Communication in New York City, 13 December.
Glossop, Ronald. 1988. International child-to-child correspondence using Esperanto. Gifted International 5, 1: 81-84.
Green, Thomas. 1983. Excellence, equity and equality. In Shulman & Sykes, Handbook of Teaching and Policy, pp. 318-341.
Green, Thomas. 1980. Predicting the Behavior of the Educational System. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.
Greenstone, J. David, and Peterson, Paul. 1983. Inquiry and social function: Two views of educational policy and practice. In Shulman & Sykes, Handbook of Teaching and Policy, pp. 408-425.
Guerard, Albert. 1922. A Short History of the International Language Movement. London: T. F. Unwin.
Haupenthal, Reinhard, ed. 1976. Plansprachen: Beitraege zur Interlinguistik. Darmstad: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.
Janton, Pierre. 1988. Esperanto: Lingvo, Literaturo, Movado. Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio.
Kerr, D. 1976. Educational Policy: Analysis, Structure, and Justification. New York: David McKay.
Large, Andrew. 1985. The Artificial Language Movement. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Levin, Saul. 1986. Can an artificial language be more than a hobby? In Humphrey Tonkin and Karen Johnson-Weiner, eds., The Idea of a Universal Language: Report of the Fourth Annual Conference of the Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems (New York: CRDWLP), pp. 21-26.
Maertens, Gregoire. 1986. La ideo de universala lingvo. In Humphrey Tonkin and Karen Johnson-Weiner, eds., The Idea of a Universal Language: Report of the Fourth Annual Conference of the Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems (New York: CRDWLP), pp. 13-18.
Moya, Giordano. 1989. Esperanto en Prospektivo. Barcelona: Barcelona Esperanto-Centro.
Nuessel, Frank. 1990. Esperanto: An opportunity for research: Linguistic research agenda for the 1990s. Geolinguistics 16: 118-128.
Odden, Allan, ed. 1991. Educational Policy Implementation. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Pirlot, Germain. 1982. Oficiala situacio de la Esperanto-instruado en la mondo. In Ruediger Eichholz and Vilma Sindona Eichholz, comps., Esperanto en la Moderna Mondo/Esperanto in the Modern World (Bailieboro, Ontario: Esperanto Press,), pp. 414-429. Also available as, Situation officielle de l'enseignement de l'esperanto dans le monde (Documents sur l'espéranto 11-F). Rotterdam Universala Esperanto-Asocio.
Pool, Jonathan. 1987. Thinking about linguistic discrimination. Language Problems and Language Planning 11, 1: 3-21.
Reagan, T. 1990. Responding to linguistic diversity in South Africa: The contribution of language planning. South African Journal of Linguistics 8, 4: 178-184.
Rich, John Martin. 1974. New Directions in Educational Policy. Lincoln, NB: Professional Educators Publications.
Richardson, David. 1988. Esperanto: Learning and Using the International Language. Eastsound, WA: Esperanto League for North America, in cooperation with Orcas Publishing.
Sherwood, Bruce. 1983. The Educational Value of Esperanto: An American View (Esperanto Documents 31-A). Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio.
Sherwood, Bruce. 1982a. The educational value of Esperanto. In Ruediger Eichholz and Vilma Sindona Eichholz, comps., Esperanto en la Moderna Mondo/Esperanto in the Modern World (Bailieboro, Ontario: Esperanto Press,), pp. 408-413.
Shulman, Lee, and Sykes, Gary, eds. 1983. Handbook of Teaching and Policy. New York: Longman.
Stokey, Edith, and Zeckhauser, Richard. 1978. A Primer for Policy Analysis. New York: W. W. Norton.
Symoens, Edward. 1989. The Socio-Political, Educational and Cultural Roots of Esperanto. Antwerpen, Belgium: Internacia Ligo de Esperantistaj Instruistoj.
Tollefson, J. 1991. Planning Language, Planning Inequality: Language Policy in the Community. London: Longman.
Tonkin, Humphrey. 1989. World communication: The role of Esperanto. Paper presented at the American Society of Geolinguistics, Columbia University, New York City, 23 September.
Tonkin, Humphrey. 1988. Beyond the competitive edge: The peaceful uses of language study. Keynote address, Annaul Conference of the California Foreign Language Teachers Association, 16 April.
Tonkin, Humphrey. 1987. One hundred years of Esperanto: A survey. Language Problems and Language Planning 11, 3: 264-282.
Tonkin, Humphrey. 1986. Esperanto: A review of its present situation. In Humphrey Tonkin and Karen Johnson-Weiner, eds., The Idea of a Universal Language: Report of the Fourth Annual Conference of the Center for Research and Documentation on World Language Problems (New York: CRDWLP), pp. 35-447.
Tonkin, Humphrey. 1977. Esperanto and International Language Problems: A Research Bibliography, 4th ed. Washington, DC: Esperantic Studies Foundation.
Williams, Walter. 1971. Social Policy Research and Analysis. New York: Elsevier.
Wood, Richard E. 1975. Teaching the interlanguage: Some experiments. Lektos: Interdisciplinary Working Papers in Language Sciences (Special Issue, Papers from the Seminar on Interlinguistics, Modern Language Association). Louisville, KY: University of Louisville.
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Esperanto Studies and Interlinguistics